Set 4 answers

While William James taught psychology earlier, G. Stanley Hall founded the first formal research laboratory at Johns Hopkins University in 1883.

Only experiments manipulate an Independent Variable to observe the effect on a Dependent Variable while controlling other factors, thus proving causation.

The hippocampus is crucial for consolidation—converting short-term memories into long-term ones.

"Negative" means removing something, and "Reinforcement" means increasing behavior. Example: Taking aspirin removes pain, so you are more likely to take aspirin again.

Based on George Miller's research (1956), the average person can hold between 5 and 9 items in their short-term memory.

While DSM-5 created a separate category for OCD, in the context of general psychology entrance exams distinguishing between broad categories (Psychotic, Mood, Anxiety), OCD is the correct choice here over the others.

Proposed by Leon Festinger, it describes the discomfort experienced when our actions do not match our beliefs, motivating us to change one of them.

Dopamine regulates the pleasure and reward centers of the brain. Drugs of abuse typically trigger large releases of dopamine.

Vygotsky defined ZPD as the difference between what a learner can do without help and what they can do with help.

A concept from psychoanalysis where a client redirects feelings for a significant person (e.g., a parent) onto the therapist.

The Big Five are Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism. Aggressiveness is not a primary trait in this model.

It is the ability to focus one's auditory attention on a single stimulus (like a conversation) while filtering out a range of other stimuli (background noise).

Ellis developed REBT, which focuses on resolving emotional and behavioral problems by changing irrational beliefs.

This law suggests there is an optimal level of arousal for best performance; too little entails boredom, too much entails anxiety.

By keeping both participants and researchers unaware of who has the treatment, expectations cannot influence the results.

Developing Theory of Mind (usually around age 4) allows children to understand that others can have false beliefs.

The retina is the light-sensitive tissue at the back of the eye where transduction (light to neural signal) occurs.

Maslow believed self-actualized people are more prone to moments of intense clarity, bliss, and interconnectedness.

Proposed by Charles Spearman, "g" represents a general cognitive ability that underlies specific mental skills.

During REM sleep, brain activity resembles being awake (vivid dreams), but the voluntary muscles are paralyzed (atonia).

This is a standard statistical rule for normal curves: 68% within 1 SD, 95% within 2 SDs, and 99.7% within 3 SDs.

Individuals feel "diffusion of responsibility," assuming someone else will intervene.

Oxytocin plays a key role in social bonding, sexual reproduction, childbirth, and the period after childbirth.

Seligman showed that dogs subjected to inescapable shocks eventually stopped trying to escape even when the opportunity was presented.

Freud used this technique where patients speak for themselves, without censorship, to reveal unconscious thoughts.

Bipolar disorder is characterized by extreme shifts in mood (mania and depression). Schizophrenia is a psychotic disorder.

Breaking information into manageable "chunks" (like breaking a phone number into 3 parts) helps bypass the limited capacity of STM.

A phoneme is the smallest distinct sound unit (e.g., the "c" sound in "cat"). Morphemes are the smallest units of meaning.

Bandura emphasized that people learn from one another via observation, imitation, and modeling.

This is a cognitive bias where we favor information that confirms our preconceptions and ignore evidence that contradicts them.

The Autonomic NS controls internal organs and glands. It is divided into Sympathetic and Parasympathetic.

Occurs from birth to 18 months. Infants learn to trust that their caregivers will meet their basic needs.

Weber’s Law states that the JND (the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection) is a constant proportion of the original stimulus.

This procedure observed how infants responded to the presence and absence of their mother and a stranger.

A concept by Carl Rogers, meaning the therapist supports the client regardless of what the client says or does.

The parietal lobe contains the somatosensory cortex which processes tactile information.

Inductive reasoning builds from specific data points to a broader generalization. Deductive moves from general premises to specific conclusions.

Watson and Rayner showed that a child could be classically conditioned to fear a neutral stimulus (white rat) by pairing it with a loud noise.

The Ego balances the impulsive demands of the Id and the moralistic demands of the Superego against the reality of the external world.

These are highly detailed, exceptionally vivid "snapshots" of the moment and circumstances in which a piece of surprising and consequential (or emotionally arousing) news was heard.

Kohlberg proposed stages of moral development: Pre-conventional, Conventional, and Post-conventional.

Jung believed humans share a reservoir of experiences and symbols (archetypes) inherited from our ancestors.

It means there is less than a 5% probability that the observed results happened by random chance.

Formerly known as Multiple Personality Disorder, DID involves the presence of two or more distinct personality states.

It regulates the activity of most other endocrine glands and produces growth hormones.

A type of behavior therapy used to help effectively overcome phobias and other anxiety disorders by gradual exposure.

Fluid intelligence involves reasoning and problem-solving in novel situations, independent of acquired knowledge (Crystallized intelligence).

Intrinsic motivation comes from within the individual (enjoyment, satisfaction), rather than from external rewards (money, grades).

It proposes that the structure of a language affects its speakers' world view or cognition.

The model stands for Activating Event (A), Belief (B), and Consequence (C). It posits that our beliefs about an event cause our emotional consequences, not the event itself.