Set 3 answers

Cognitive psychology focuses on mental processes like memory, attention, thinking, and problem-solving. Memory (storage/retrieval) is a core cognitive topic.

In classical conditioning, the **US** naturally triggers a response without learning (e.g., food → salivation).

Psychodynamic theory emphasizes **unconscious processes**, internal conflicts, and childhood experiences (Freud and later theorists).

Rogers developed **client-centered/person-centered therapy**, emphasizing empathy, genuineness, and unconditional positive regard.

Informed consent means the client is informed about therapy’s nature, benefits/risks, confidentiality limits, and choices before agreeing.

A correlation of **-0.80** is strong and negative: as one variable increases, the other tends to decrease.

Correlation shows association, not causation. It cannot prove one variable causes another.

The **independent variable** is what the researcher manipulates (sleep deprivation levels). Reaction time is the dependent variable.

Confirmation bias is the tendency to seek/interpret information in ways that confirm existing beliefs.

Negative reinforcement = **removing** an unpleasant stimulus to increase behavior (press button → noise stops → more pressing).

Bandura’s social learning theory highlights learning by watching others (modeling), shown in the Bobo doll experiment.

“Do good” (beneficence) and “do no harm” (nonmaleficence) are central ethical duties in helping professions.

Reliability refers to **consistency** of scores across time/conditions (e.g., test–retest reliability).

Validity asks whether the test **measures what it claims to measure**.

In this stage, children think logically about **concrete** objects/events (conservation, classification), not abstract reasoning.

Erikson’s adolescence stage focuses on forming identity; failure leads to role confusion.

Dendrites receive incoming signals from other neurons; axons send signals away from the cell body.

The brainstem regulates vital functions like breathing and heart rate (basic life support systems).

Fight-or-flight arousal is controlled by the sympathetic system (increases heart rate, breathing, energy mobilization).

Serotonin is strongly associated with mood regulation; low activity is often linked with depression.

Confidentiality is protected, but has limits when there is danger to self/others or legal obligations.

Countertransference = therapist/counselor’s emotional reactions to a client based on the counselor’s own past/personal issues.

Transference occurs when a client redirects feelings from important past relationships onto the therapist (e.g., parent-like feelings).

REBT (Ellis) targets irrational beliefs (e.g., “must/should” thinking) and replaces them with rational alternatives.

CBT explains distress through interaction of cognition, emotion, and behavior, and intervenes across these.

Projection = attributing one’s unacceptable feelings/impulses to someone else (e.g., “They hate me” when you feel hatred).

Regression is reverting to earlier, childlike behaviors under stress (e.g., tantrums, clinginess).

Gestalt emphasizes present awareness (“here and now”), integrating experience, and personal responsibility.

Operant conditioning (Skinner) focuses on behavior shaped by consequences (reinforcement/punishment).

Humanistic psychology emphasizes choice, meaning, self-growth, and self-actualization (Rogers, Maslow).

Deception is only ethically acceptable when necessary, minimal risk, approved, and followed by **debriefing** and option to withdraw data where applicable.

Mean = sum of scores ÷ number of scores.

Median is the central value once scores are arranged from lowest to highest.

Right tail = positive skew. A few high scores pull the tail to the right.

Eclectic counseling uses methods from multiple theories to fit client needs (not limited to one model).

Covert processes are internal/private (thinking, remembering). Others are observable behaviors/physiology.

Overt behavior is observable; tapping can be directly seen/measured.

Core goals of psychology include describing behavior, explaining causes, predicting outcomes, and applying knowledge to influence/improve outcomes.

Gestalt psychology focuses on perception/experience as organized wholes (“the whole differs from the sum of parts”).

Counseling ethics emphasize boundaries (avoid harmful dual relationships, maintain role clarity, prevent exploitation).

Standard IQ tests are normed with mean ≈ 100 (with SD often 15).

GAD involves chronic excessive worry + symptoms like restlessness and muscle tension over long duration.

Comorbidity means co-occurrence of conditions (e.g., depression + anxiety).

Bipolar disorders include manic/hypomanic episodes (elevated mood/energy, reduced sleep, impulsivity).

The DSM is a diagnostic classification system used to describe and diagnose mental disorders.

Suicidal intent with plan/means requires immediate safety action (risk assessment, safety planning, referral/emergency support; confidentiality may be broken).

Cultural psychology studies how culture shapes thinking, values, behavior, and development.

Structuralism (Wundt/Titchener) used introspection to study elements/structure of conscious experience.

Watson is commonly credited as the founder/father of behaviorism.

Rapport is the positive working alliance—trust, comfort, and collaboration between counselor and client.